Terms: ID the following terms. Include any and all information that you feel is relevant to the term. If possible identify any other IDs your term is related to.
Scientific Revolution: (1540-1690) a time period where there was a huge progression in science. This was caused by the Renaissance (education movement, looking at ancient works and patronage), development of medievil universities, navigational problem and better ways of gathering information (instruments). involved interest in equality and human rights.
Copernicus, heliocentric view- Since the common belief at the time was that the earth was this perfect universe, many people began to question aristotle's findings and how they only worked sometimes, not every time. Trying to figure out this problem, Copernicus invented this idea of how the sun is the center of the earth, and that everything revolves around the sun (heliocentric view). Problems with this finding - Copernicus holds from publishing this information until his is on his death bed for a few reasons 1) His idea of a heliocentric universe would take the earth from this very important superior planet that is the center of the universe, to just a regular insignificant planet = cause turmoil among people 2) Previous to this, many religious (christian) people thought that the earth being the center of the universe made perfect sense (the people thought they lived in god's home in a way). Publishing this information would go against many of the common beliefs that have been concreted into people's minds for over hundreds of years (remember, Aristotle's laws remained popular for a while because it made perfect sense. . . everything they saw and felt matched his ideas). However, publishing this would upset many people, and Copernicus feared being declared a heretic. So what did happen??
At first the Catholic Church shrugged him off, while the Protestant People were outraged because it contradicted what was said in the bible(sun stands still). . . and they declared Copernicus as a heretic
Other Significant Info: Copernicus's heliocentric view showed that earth is extremely big, because the stars don't move, the earth does. Also, it made people began to question god's role with earth . . . if this world is so big, and god's home is outside of the stars = he's far far away
Tycho Brahe- . Brahe is known for the fact that he builds "modern observatories" for collecting data (benches on top of a hill). Brahe is able to collect data to to his wealthy patron who is the Holy Roman Emperor. Brahe is the next person who follows copernicus along this line of thinkers, and is known for being bad at math. Even though he has all this data, essentially, he cant produce very accurate estimations and what not. (remember Mr. Adamson talking about Brahe measuring star locations with his thumb). Anyways, he did come up with one theory: While the planets revolve around the sun, the sun revolves around the earth. This idea is "terrible and stupid." Also know that his assistant, Kepler, is one of the positives to result from Brahe's life.
Johannes Kepler- Better known as Kepler, or Brahe's right hand man. Kepler was the assistant to the incredibly dumb, data collecting Brahe. While being Brahe's assistant, Kepler realizes that to some extent Brahe does have some good information, he just is horrible at math. Once Brahe is no longer an interference, Kepler begins to go through all of Brahe's information and starts to find some patterns in his findings. These findings are called . . . The Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Significance of Kepler. . . He proves Copernicus's theory to be true with his three laws, and he destroys Aristotle's philosophy (public no longer believes in it). He also explained why the planets move the way they do which has been dumbfounding scientists for a while (explained in law 1).
3 Laws of planetary motion- invented by Kepler ^^^ see above
The three laws of planetary motion are as followed: 1) Planets orbit around the sun in an oval path 2) Planets all move at different speeds 3) The time it takes a planet to orbit is related to its mass and distance from the sun Significance: - These laws helped scientists understand why the planets moved the way they do.
- These laws proved Copernicus's ideas to be true, which resulted in Aristotle's views no longer being popular among the people.
Galileo- Galileo did NOT invent the telescope, he just modified it. Galileo is known for his experimental method . . . which is -- if you want to learn information about something, conduct experiments. This opposes the popular method called philosophy (where scientists would simply talk about possible solutions or ideas on a topic. . . "yeah that makes sense..") Using this experimental method, Galileo applied it to astronomy. As stated previously, he did not make the teliscope, it was already invented -- he just build his own and tweaked it. Using his improved telescope, Galileo's reasoning was... "if we want to learn about heaven, well lets take a closer look at it." How did Galileo farther destroy Aristotle's belief? Using this improved telescope, he was able to view The 4 moons of Jupiter, and notice how Jupiter had 4 moons... this contradicts everything Aristotle said because the moons would crash into and break the crystalline spheres surrounding the planet. Also, he viewed the earth's moon, and saw it had craters. Which contradicts Aristotle's idea of how everything is perfect.
Important to know on Galileo! -- Two Chief Systems of a World. Which talks about the old view (Aristotle) and the new view (Copernicus). He defends Copernicus's idea and farther explains it using his own research and information.
---Result, Galileo is labeled a heretic and he is forced into recanting his accusations (to avoid being a heretic). However, the damage is already done, and Copernicus's theory is gaining more attention...!
laws of inertia- Galileo's Law of Inertia states that.... The natural state of an object is MOVING. This contradicted Aristotle's viewpoints even farther. Because Aristotle believed that the natural state of all objects is Stationary (which made sense at the time, because it matched what the people felt and experienced every day. ex, a table naturally stays put on the floor and doesn't move = therefor, the natural state is stationary).
telescope- Used for terrestrial applications and astronomy. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, using glass lenses. galileo used them.
Francis Bacon- He was a English politician and writer who was an early promoter of a new experimental method. He rejected the Aristotelian and medieval methods of using speculative reasoning to build theories. He believed that knowledge had to be acquired through empirical research. If one wanted to learn about something, they should not speculate about it but analyze and compare things. He went on to formalize the empirical method.
empiricism- this is the theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimenting rather than reasoning and speculating about things. Francis Bacon was a huge supporter of this and went on to formalize this method. This method was also used by Brahe and Galileo but not widespread until Bacon used it.
inductive method- "bottom up" logic, reasoning from detailed facts to general principles
Rene Descartes- He was a French philosopher who made a great mathematical discovery. While serving in the military he saw that there was a direct correspondence between algebra and geometry and that geometrical figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa. He also came up with the fact that all matter was made up of identical corpuscules that collided together in endless motion. He was a strong believer in deductive reasoning. He viewed that all substances could be broken down into either mind or matter. He thought that God gave humans the ability to reason for a reason and that it should be used.
deductive reasoning- Is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements to reach a logically certain conclusion.
cogito ergo sum(“I think; therefore, I am”)- A philosophical Latin statement proposed by René Descartes that means that someone wondering whether or not he or she exists is, in and of itself, proof that they exist to do the thinking. Cartesian dualism- This was a philosophy thought up by Rene Descartes. This view states that all reality could ultimately be reduced to either mind or matter. Everything that was physically there would be considered matter. Anything that wasn't physically there and was all thought would be considered mind. This thought was highly influential in France and the Netherlands. This is basically the opposite of experimental philosophy.
scientific method- a method of inquiry that is based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
Isaac Newton- He is an English scientist that made many huge discoveries in the world of physics. He published all his findings in Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. His major finding was his discovering the law of universal gravitation. He came up with the three laws of motion. Newton also was the inventor of calculus. Newton is known as one of the greatest and most influential thinkers/scientists of all time. All his discoveries have prevailed until the twentieth century.
principle of universal gravitation- Sir Isaac Newton came up with this law. It states that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This law pulled together everything such as the elliptical orbits to Galileo's rolling balls.
Principia, 1687 : "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"-this was Newton's book that he published all his findings in. This is a super important book. It has all of his works about physics and calculus. It laid down the his three laws of motion. It also explained his law of universal gravitation. one of Newton's finest books and most famous. Main concept are the three laws.
Royal Society- The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations in London. They were influenced by the "new science”, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library. After the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society which is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence.
Enlightenment- A cultural movement of intellectuals in the 17th and 18th centuries, first in Europe and later in the American colonies. Its purpose was to reform society using reason, challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and advance knowledge through the scientific method. Also involved interests in equality and human rights.
Deism- Is the belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of God, accompanied with the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge. Also known as a clockmaker.
John Locke,Two Treatises of Civil Government- John Locke was a political philosopher who wrote this work in response to the political turmoil in Great Britian. The Two treatises of Civil Government discusses the role of the government. This role is that the government's function is to protect the natural rights (life, liberty and property) of the people, if the government does not protect these right it becomes a tyranny and the people have the natural right to rebel.
tabula rasa- blank tablet, John Locke insisted that all ideas are derived from experience and that the human mind at birth is tabula rasa (blank). Locke outlines his reasoning against Descarte's theory of how ideas are passed down through your family; Locke believes that people are products of their lives and they are not born that way.
philosophes-
were the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, and distrusted organized religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions.They faded away after the French Revolution reached a violent stage in 1793.
Voltaire-
writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form. He was an outspoken advocate, despite strict censorship laws with harsh penalties for those who broke them
Baron de Montesquieu,Spirit of Laws:
is a treatise on political theory first published anonymously by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in 1748 with the help of Claudine Guérin de Tencin. Originally published anonymously partly because Montesquieu's works were subject to censorship, its influence outside of France was aided by its rapid translation into other languages. Covered many things like the law, social life, and the study of anthropology and providing more than 3,000 commendations. In this political treatise Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a constitutional system of government and the separation of powers, the ending of slavery, the preservation of civil liberties and the law, and the idea that political institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects of each community
checks and balances- A constitutionally madated structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over of the actions of others.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)- Was a french philosopher, writer and composer. His political philosophies influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, socialogical, and educational thought.
Social Contract, 1762 - by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, theorized about the best way to set up a political community in the face of problems in commerical society. It also argued the fact that monarches are not divinely inspired to run the goverment. This book helped inspire political reforms and revolutions in Europe, particularly France
General will- Rousseau's idea that goverment should act for the majority. “noble savage” -
Denis Diderot, The Encyclopedia - Diderot was an enlightened thinker and writer he wrote many books about his views on religion where he questions Gods integrity. His biggest contrabution was the Encyclopedia which he helped edit with Jean Le Rond D'Alembet. Their vision was to incorporate every discovery that had been learned up to that point, it covered all the areas, science and technology, politics, religion, art, social and humanitarian issues. Wrote On Crimes and Punishment(1764)-
is a treatise written by Cesare Beccaria in 1764. It condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology.The book's principles influenced thinking on criminal justice and punishment of offenders, leading to reforms in Europe, especially in France and at the court of Catherine II of Russia.
Francois Quesnay-
was a French economist of the Physiocratic school.He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work to attempt to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought
physiocrats-
is an economic theory developed by the Physiocrats, a group of economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or "land development." Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. Physiocracy is perhaps the first well-developed theory of economics. The movement was particularly dominated by François Quesnay (1694–1774)
Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1727-1790)-
Written by economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith. First published in 1776, the book offers one of the world's first collected descriptions of what builds nations' wealth and is today a fundamental work in classical economics. Through reflection over the economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution the book touches upon broad topics as the division of labour, productivity and free markets.
salon movement:created an independent cultural realm freed from religious dogma and political censorship. Salons united members of the intellectual, economic, and social elites. common people usually weren't invited. They were also used as informal schools for women. This is the place people when to discuss ideas and thoughts about certain subjects. Madame Geoffrin had one of the most famous salons.
Mary Wollstonecraft(1759-1797):
) was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.
Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach-
David Hume- scottish philosopher who stated that senses are our only way of knowing anything. This idea hurt the enlightened idea of progress and reason because how can one critically think about something without experiencing it (can't form opinion on subject without experiencing it)
Immanuel Kant- Born in East Prussia. Major advocate of free publication of ideas. Thought enlightenment would follow if serious thinkers were allowed to freely publish their ideas. Can't have been revolutionary. Believed in all individuals should follow all laws and should be punished for irrational criticism.
classical liberalism-
German pietism-
Methodism: Believers did not want to lapse back into the wars that had been fought over fine points of doctrine, but they still believed that Christianity should be a matter of scripture and believe The goal of Christian preaching was to create a connection with god.
John Wesley (1703- 1791)-
was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian. Wesley is largely credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield. In contrast to George Whitefield's Calvinism, Wesley embraced the Arminian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century Church of England. Methodism in both forms was a highly successful evangelical movement in the United Kingdom, which encouraged people to experience Jesus Christ personally. Wesley's teachings, known as Wesleyanism, provided the seeds for the modern Methodist movement.
Jansenis:
was a Christian theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the posthumously published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. It was first popularized by Jansen's friend Jean du Vergier, Abbé de Saint-Cyran, and after Saint-Cyran's death in 1643 was led by Antoine Arnauld.
Enlightened Despotism: monarchs who without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted enlightened ideals of rationalism, progression and tolerance. Examples of an enlightened despot is Catherine the Great.
Frederick the Great- Known as Fredrick II as an enlightened ruler in Prussia during the 18th century. He embraced the arts as a young child and enforced his power by using his powerful army that his father, Fredrick William I, had left for him. Fredrick consolidated his power early by taking over Austrian-German lands of Silesia due to a weak ruler. However, during the Seven Years' War, he was targeted by both Maria Theresa of Austria, and France in order to get back the lands lost early in Maria Theresa's reign. As for internal affairs for Fredrick, he allowed his subjects to openly believe in religion and philosophical matters, promoted schooling for all, simplified law codes and torture was abolished. He didn't believe in the divine right of kings, however, he was put on the throne to better the lives of the Prussian people and instruct them in the best way he could.
War of Austrian Succession- In the war of Austrian Succession, Fredrick the Great looked to gain more Prussian lands early in his reign when he noticed that Austria was in control of a weak ruler of Maria Theresa. He then marched his powerful army into the lands of Silesia, a small area of German lands that was very densely populated (almost 6 million people). Because of this takeover, Fredrick the Great had doubled his population of his country and he had introduced Prussia as a true superpower.
Silesia- This is a medium sized piece of land in the area of Germany and Austria that was previously held by Maria Theresa of Austria. It was very densely populated with approximately 6 million people and was gained by Fredrick the Great in 1742 during the War of Austrian Succession. This piece of land was also a main battleground for the Seven Years' War and was always being fought over during the late 18th century.
Seven Years’ War- For Prussia during the Seven Years' War, Fredrick the Great had to hold off great superpowers such as France, Austria and Russia because they were targeted due to their superior army and they were heavily disputed as to what religion would be accepted in the country because Fredrick openly allowed any religion. France, Austria and Russia looked to take over Prussia and divide the country up amongst themselves. Fredrick was miraculously saved by Peter III when he came to the Russian throne and called off the attack against Prussia. Prussia came out of the Seven Years' War very weak with poor lands and a less powerful army and struggled the years after the war had ended.
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”-
Treaty of Paris- This was the treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in 1763. It ended the first true "world war" and ratified British Victory on all fronts of Europe and back in the Colonies. France had lost all of its holdings in North America to Britain and its area of Louisiana to Spain. France also gave up most of its holdings in India that opened the way for Britain to control subcontinental dominance in trade. It had also allowed Britain to build up their powerful Navy and their shipping Industry thrived as a result of the Navigation Acts.
“first servant of the state”- This was claimed by Fredrick the Great as he didn't see himself as an absolutist ruler that believed in Divine Right. He wanted to solely rule his state as merely a servant because he wasn't put into the throne through the power of God. He was seen as just a common man that ruled by example through his people. He believed in the idea of cameralism that all elements of society should serve the monarch and that in turn the state should use its resources to increase the public good. This allows Fredrick to input what he wants to better the state of Prussia.
Catherine the Great- She was an enlightened ruler of the late 18th century in Russia. Some of her reforms consisted of westernizing the culture of Russia by bringing in in architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals to make Russia look like a more westernized state. She also appointed special legislative commission to prepare a new law code. This project was never completed, but Catherine did do things such as restricting the practice of torture, and allowed limited religious toleration. She also patronized the philosophes and looked to incorporate her culture some into the west.
Pugachev Rebellion- During the reign of Catherine the Great of Prussia, Emelian Pugachev lead a huge anti-serfdom revolt but he ended up getting killed. Its significance is that it ended all of Catherine's niceness towards reform efforts for the peasants. Previously, one of her three goals was domestic reform where she created new legislative groups and limited torture and increased religious toleration, but this rebellion caused Catherine to realize that her true power lay in the nobles, so she gave up trying to help the peasants and she pursued pleasing the elite. It is the turning point of her less-than-enlightened goal of territorial expansion.
Polish partitions- Three territorial divisons of Poland. Perpetrated by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
liberum veto- was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting Nie pozwalam! (Polish: "I do not allow!").
Maria Theresa-mother of Joseph the II and daughter of Charles VI. Inherited land from her father through the Pragmatic Sanction, which was promptly invaded by Fredrick the Great of Prussia and other European countries in the War of Austrian Succession. She limited the popes power, strengthened bureaucracy smoothed out provincial differences, revamped taxes, and reduced nobles' power over serfs.
Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Hasburg monarch Charles V controlled the barely stitched together state of the "hereditary provinces" of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the kingdom of Hungary. In order to keep the Habsburg territories together after his succession, Charles spent a lot of his reign getting his family, the 3 different estates in the territories and other European states to all his heir to inherit all of the Habsburg possessions.
Joseph II (1780-90)- Known as one of the great enlightened rulers. Came to throne in 1780, wasting no time for reform. He closely controlled Catholic church to produce better citizens, granted religious toleration, and gave civic rights to protestants and Jews.
European Enlightenment Glossary
Terms: ID the following terms. Include any and all information that you feel is relevant to the term. If possible identify any other IDs your term is related to.
Scientific Revolution: (1540-1690) a time period where there was a huge progression in science. This was caused by the Renaissance (education movement, looking at ancient works and patronage), development of medievil universities, navigational problem and better ways of gathering information (instruments). involved interest in equality and human rights.
Copernicus, heliocentric view- Since the common belief at the time was that the earth was this perfect universe, many people began to question aristotle's findings and how they only worked sometimes, not every time. Trying to figure out this problem, Copernicus invented this idea of how the sun is the center of the earth, and that everything revolves around the sun (heliocentric view).
Problems with this finding - Copernicus holds from publishing this information until his is on his death bed for a few reasons
1) His idea of a heliocentric universe would take the earth from this very important superior planet that is the center of the universe, to just a regular insignificant planet = cause turmoil among people
2) Previous to this, many religious (christian) people thought that the earth being the center of the universe made perfect sense (the people thought they lived in god's home in a way). Publishing this information would go against many of the common beliefs that have been concreted into people's minds for over hundreds of years (remember, Aristotle's laws remained popular for a while because it made perfect sense. . . everything they saw and felt matched his ideas). However, publishing this would upset many people, and Copernicus feared being declared a heretic. So what did happen??
At first the Catholic Church shrugged him off, while the Protestant People were outraged because it contradicted what was said in the bible(sun stands still). . . and they declared Copernicus as a heretic
Other Significant Info: Copernicus's heliocentric view showed that earth is extremely big, because the stars don't move, the earth does. Also, it made people began to question god's role with earth . . . if this world is so big, and god's home is outside of the stars = he's far far away
Tycho Brahe- . Brahe is known for the fact that he builds "modern observatories" for collecting data (benches on top of a hill). Brahe is able to collect data to to his wealthy patron who is the Holy Roman Emperor. Brahe is the next person who follows copernicus along this line of thinkers, and is known for being bad at math. Even though he has all this data, essentially, he cant produce very accurate estimations and what not. (remember Mr. Adamson talking about Brahe measuring star locations with his thumb). Anyways, he did come up with one theory: While the planets revolve around the sun, the sun revolves around the earth. This idea is "terrible and stupid." Also know that his assistant, Kepler, is one of the positives to result from Brahe's life.
Johannes Kepler- Better known as Kepler, or Brahe's right hand man. Kepler was the assistant to the incredibly dumb, data collecting Brahe. While being Brahe's assistant, Kepler realizes that to some extent Brahe does have some good information, he just is horrible at math. Once Brahe is no longer an interference, Kepler begins to go through all of Brahe's information and starts to find some patterns in his findings. These findings are called . . . The Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Significance of Kepler. . . He proves Copernicus's theory to be true with his three laws, and he destroys Aristotle's philosophy (public no longer believes in it). He also explained why the planets move the way they do which has been dumbfounding scientists for a while (explained in law 1).
3 Laws of planetary motion- invented by Kepler ^^^ see above
The three laws of planetary motion are as followed: 1) Planets orbit around the sun in an oval path
2) Planets all move at different speeds
3) The time it takes a planet to orbit is related to its mass and distance from the sun
Significance: - These laws helped scientists understand why the planets moved the way they do.
- These laws proved Copernicus's ideas to be true, which resulted in Aristotle's views no longer being popular among the people.
Galileo- Galileo did NOT invent the telescope, he just modified it. Galileo is known for his experimental method . . . which is -- if you want to learn information about something, conduct experiments. This opposes the popular method called philosophy (where scientists would simply talk about possible solutions or ideas on a topic. . . "yeah that makes sense..") Using this experimental method, Galileo applied it to astronomy. As stated previously, he did not make the teliscope, it was already invented -- he just build his own and tweaked it. Using his improved telescope, Galileo's reasoning was... "if we want to learn about heaven, well lets take a closer look at it."
How did Galileo farther destroy Aristotle's belief?
Using this improved telescope, he was able to view The 4 moons of Jupiter, and notice how Jupiter had 4 moons... this contradicts everything Aristotle said because the moons would crash into and break the crystalline spheres surrounding the planet. Also, he viewed the earth's moon, and saw it had craters. Which contradicts Aristotle's idea of how everything is perfect.
Important to know on Galileo! -- Two Chief Systems of a World. Which talks about the old view (Aristotle) and the new view (Copernicus). He defends Copernicus's idea and farther explains it using his own research and information.
---Result, Galileo is labeled a heretic and he is forced into recanting his accusations (to avoid being a heretic). However, the damage is already done, and Copernicus's theory is gaining more attention...!
laws of inertia- Galileo's Law of Inertia states that.... The natural state of an object is MOVING. This contradicted Aristotle's viewpoints even farther. Because Aristotle believed that the natural state of all objects is Stationary (which made sense at the time, because it matched what the people felt and experienced every day. ex, a table naturally stays put on the floor and doesn't move = therefor, the natural state is stationary).
telescope- Used for terrestrial applications and astronomy. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, using glass lenses. galileo used them.
Francis Bacon- He was a English politician and writer who was an early promoter of a new experimental method. He rejected the Aristotelian and medieval methods of using speculative reasoning to build theories. He believed that knowledge had to be acquired through empirical research. If one wanted to learn about something, they should not speculate about it but analyze and compare things. He went on to formalize the empirical method.
empiricism- this is the theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimenting rather than reasoning and speculating about things. Francis Bacon was a huge supporter of this and went on to formalize this method. This method was also used by Brahe and Galileo but not widespread until Bacon used it.
inductive method- "bottom up" logic, reasoning from detailed facts to general principles
Rene Descartes- He was a French philosopher who made a great mathematical discovery. While serving in the military he saw that there was a direct correspondence between algebra and geometry and that geometrical figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa. He also came up with the fact that all matter was made up of identical corpuscules that collided together in endless motion. He was a strong believer in deductive reasoning. He viewed that all substances could be broken down into either mind or matter. He thought that God gave humans the ability to reason for a reason and that it should be used.
deductive reasoning- Is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements to reach a logically certain conclusion.
cogito ergo sum(“I think; therefore, I am”)- A philosophical Latin statement proposed by René Descartes that means that someone wondering whether or not he or she exists is, in and of itself, proof that they exist to do the thinking.
Cartesian dualism- This was a philosophy thought up by Rene Descartes. This view states that all reality could ultimately be reduced to either mind or matter. Everything that was physically there would be considered matter. Anything that wasn't physically there and was all thought would be considered mind. This thought was highly influential in France and the Netherlands. This is basically the opposite of experimental philosophy.
scientific method- a method of inquiry that is based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
Isaac Newton- He is an English scientist that made many huge discoveries in the world of physics. He published all his findings in Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. His major finding was his discovering the law of universal gravitation. He came up with the three laws of motion. Newton also was the inventor of calculus. Newton is known as one of the greatest and most influential thinkers/scientists of all time. All his discoveries have prevailed until the twentieth century.
principle of universal gravitation- Sir Isaac Newton came up with this law. It states that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This law pulled together everything such as the elliptical orbits to Galileo's rolling balls.
Principia, 1687 : "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"-this was Newton's book that he published all his findings in. This is a super important book. It has all of his works about physics and calculus. It laid down the his three laws of motion. It also explained his law of universal gravitation. one of Newton's finest books and most famous. Main concept are the three laws.
Royal Society- The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations in London. They were influenced by the "new science”, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library. After the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society which is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence.
Enlightenment- A cultural movement of intellectuals in the 17th and 18th centuries, first in Europe and later in the American colonies. Its purpose was to reform society using reason, challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and advance knowledge through the scientific method. Also involved interests in equality and human rights.
Deism- Is the belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of God, accompanied with the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge. Also known as a clockmaker.
John Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government- John Locke was a political philosopher who wrote this work in response to the political turmoil in Great Britian. The Two treatises of Civil Government discusses the role of the government. This role is that the government's function is to protect the natural rights (life, liberty and property) of the people, if the government does not protect these right it becomes a tyranny and the people have the natural right to rebel.
tabula rasa- blank tablet, John Locke insisted that all ideas are derived from experience and that the human mind at birth is tabula rasa (blank). Locke outlines his reasoning against Descarte's theory of how ideas are passed down through your family; Locke believes that people are products of their lives and they are not born that way.
philosophes-
were the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, and distrusted organized religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions.They faded away after the French Revolution reached a violent stage in 1793.
Voltaire-
writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form. He was an outspoken advocate, despite strict censorship laws with harsh penalties for those who broke them
Baron de Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws:
is a treatise on political theory first published anonymously by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in 1748 with the help of Claudine Guérin de Tencin. Originally published anonymously partly because Montesquieu's works were subject to censorship, its influence outside of France was aided by its rapid translation into other languages. Covered many things like the law, social life, and the study of anthropology and providing more than 3,000 commendations. In this political treatise Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a constitutional system of government and the separation of powers, the ending of slavery, the preservation of civil liberties and the law, and the idea that political institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects of each community
checks and balances- A constitutionally madated structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over of the actions of others.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)- Was a french philosopher, writer and composer. His political philosophies influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, socialogical, and educational thought.
Social Contract, 1762 - by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, theorized about the best way to set up a political community in the face of problems in commerical society. It also argued the fact that monarches are not divinely inspired to run the goverment. This book helped inspire political reforms and revolutions in Europe, particularly France
General will- Rousseau's idea that goverment should act for the majority.
“noble savage” -
Denis Diderot, The Encyclopedia - Diderot was an enlightened thinker and writer he wrote many books about his views on religion where he questions Gods integrity. His biggest contrabution was the Encyclopedia which he helped edit with Jean Le Rond D'Alembet. Their vision was to incorporate every discovery that had been learned up to that point, it covered all the areas, science and technology, politics, religion, art, social and humanitarian issues.
Wrote On Crimes and Punishment(1764)-
is a treatise written by Cesare Beccaria in 1764. It condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology.The book's principles influenced thinking on criminal justice and punishment of offenders, leading to reforms in Europe, especially in France and at the court of Catherine II of Russia.
Francois Quesnay-
was a French economist of the Physiocratic school.He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work to attempt to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought
physiocrats-
is an economic theory developed by the Physiocrats, a group of economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or "land development." Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. Physiocracy is perhaps the first well-developed theory of economics. The movement was particularly dominated by François Quesnay (1694–1774)
Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1727-1790)-
Written by economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith. First published in 1776, the book offers one of the world's first collected descriptions of what builds nations' wealth and is today a fundamental work in classical economics. Through reflection over the economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution the book touches upon broad topics as the division of labour, productivity and free markets.
salon movement: created an independent cultural realm freed from religious dogma and political censorship. Salons united members of the intellectual, economic, and social elites. common people usually weren't invited. They were also used as informal schools for women. This is the place people when to discuss ideas and thoughts about certain subjects. Madame Geoffrin had one of the most famous salons.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797):
) was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.
Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach-
David Hume- scottish philosopher who stated that senses are our only way of knowing anything. This idea hurt the enlightened idea of progress and reason because how can one critically think about something without experiencing it (can't form opinion on subject without experiencing it)
Immanuel Kant- Born in East Prussia. Major advocate of free publication of ideas. Thought enlightenment would follow if serious thinkers were allowed to freely publish their ideas. Can't have been revolutionary. Believed in all individuals should follow all laws and should be punished for irrational criticism.
classical liberalism-
German pietism-
Methodism: Believers did not want to lapse back into the wars that had been fought over fine points of doctrine, but they still believed that Christianity should be a matter of scripture and believe The goal of Christian preaching was to create a connection with god.
John Wesley (1703- 1791)-
was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian. Wesley is largely credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield. In contrast to George Whitefield's Calvinism, Wesley embraced the Arminian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century Church of England. Methodism in both forms was a highly successful evangelical movement in the United Kingdom, which encouraged people to experience Jesus Christ personally. Wesley's teachings, known as Wesleyanism, provided the seeds for the modern Methodist movement.
Jansenis:
was a Christian theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the posthumously published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. It was first popularized by Jansen's friend Jean du Vergier, Abbé de Saint-Cyran, and after Saint-Cyran's death in 1643 was led by Antoine Arnauld.
Enlightened Despotism: monarchs who without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted enlightened ideals of rationalism, progression and tolerance. Examples of an enlightened despot is Catherine the Great.
Frederick the Great- Known as Fredrick II as an enlightened ruler in Prussia during the 18th century. He embraced the arts as a young child and enforced his power by using his powerful army that his father, Fredrick William I, had left for him. Fredrick consolidated his power early by taking over Austrian-German lands of Silesia due to a weak ruler. However, during the Seven Years' War, he was targeted by both Maria Theresa of Austria, and France in order to get back the lands lost early in Maria Theresa's reign. As for internal affairs for Fredrick, he allowed his subjects to openly believe in religion and philosophical matters, promoted schooling for all, simplified law codes and torture was abolished. He didn't believe in the divine right of kings, however, he was put on the throne to better the lives of the Prussian people and instruct them in the best way he could.
War of Austrian Succession- In the war of Austrian Succession, Fredrick the Great looked to gain more Prussian lands early in his reign when he noticed that Austria was in control of a weak ruler of Maria Theresa. He then marched his powerful army into the lands of Silesia, a small area of German lands that was very densely populated (almost 6 million people). Because of this takeover, Fredrick the Great had doubled his population of his country and he had introduced Prussia as a true superpower.
Silesia- This is a medium sized piece of land in the area of Germany and Austria that was previously held by Maria Theresa of Austria. It was very densely populated with approximately 6 million people and was gained by Fredrick the Great in 1742 during the War of Austrian Succession. This piece of land was also a main battleground for the Seven Years' War and was always being fought over during the late 18th century.
Seven Years’ War- For Prussia during the Seven Years' War, Fredrick the Great had to hold off great superpowers such as France, Austria and Russia because they were targeted due to their superior army and they were heavily disputed as to what religion would be accepted in the country because Fredrick openly allowed any religion. France, Austria and Russia looked to take over Prussia and divide the country up amongst themselves. Fredrick was miraculously saved by Peter III when he came to the Russian throne and called off the attack against Prussia. Prussia came out of the Seven Years' War very weak with poor lands and a less powerful army and struggled the years after the war had ended.
“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”-
Treaty of Paris- This was the treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in 1763. It ended the first true "world war" and ratified British Victory on all fronts of Europe and back in the Colonies. France had lost all of its holdings in North America to Britain and its area of Louisiana to Spain. France also gave up most of its holdings in India that opened the way for Britain to control subcontinental dominance in trade. It had also allowed Britain to build up their powerful Navy and their shipping Industry thrived as a result of the Navigation Acts.
“first servant of the state”- This was claimed by Fredrick the Great as he didn't see himself as an absolutist ruler that believed in Divine Right. He wanted to solely rule his state as merely a servant because he wasn't put into the throne through the power of God. He was seen as just a common man that ruled by example through his people. He believed in the idea of cameralism that all elements of society should serve the monarch and that in turn the state should use its resources to increase the public good. This allows Fredrick to input what he wants to better the state of Prussia.
Catherine the Great- She was an enlightened ruler of the late 18th century in Russia. Some of her reforms consisted of westernizing the culture of Russia by bringing in in architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals to make Russia look like a more westernized state. She also appointed special legislative commission to prepare a new law code. This project was never completed, but Catherine did do things such as restricting the practice of torture, and allowed limited religious toleration. She also patronized the philosophes and looked to incorporate her culture some into the west.
Pugachev Rebellion- During the reign of Catherine the Great of Prussia, Emelian Pugachev lead a huge anti-serfdom revolt but he ended up getting killed. Its significance is that it ended all of Catherine's niceness towards reform efforts for the peasants. Previously, one of her three goals was domestic reform where she created new legislative groups and limited torture and increased religious toleration, but this rebellion caused Catherine to realize that her true power lay in the nobles, so she gave up trying to help the peasants and she pursued pleasing the elite. It is the turning point of her less-than-enlightened goal of territorial expansion.
Polish partitions- Three territorial divisons of Poland. Perpetrated by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
liberum veto- was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting Nie pozwalam! (Polish: "I do not allow!").
Maria Theresa-mother of Joseph the II and daughter of Charles VI. Inherited land from her father through the Pragmatic Sanction, which was promptly invaded by Fredrick the Great of Prussia and other European countries in the War of Austrian Succession. She limited the popes power, strengthened bureaucracy smoothed out provincial differences, revamped taxes, and reduced nobles' power over serfs.
Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Hasburg monarch Charles V controlled the barely stitched together state of the "hereditary provinces" of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the kingdom of Hungary. In order to keep the Habsburg territories together after his succession, Charles spent a lot of his reign getting his family, the 3 different estates in the territories and other European states to all his heir to inherit all of the Habsburg possessions.
Joseph II (1780-90)- Known as one of the great enlightened rulers. Came to throne in 1780, wasting no time for reform. He closely controlled Catholic church to produce better citizens, granted religious toleration, and gave civic rights to protestants and Jews.